Fundamentals and history of standardized livestock animal feeding

Basics of livestock feeding standards

Course objective: to master the specific features of setting standards for the feeding of livestock animals.

Task 1. Understand the history and scientific basis of feeding standards for livestock animals.

To maintain health, optimal growth and development, reproduction, and high productivity, it is necessary to provide an animal throughout its life with nutrients in accordance with its requirements.

From a physiological perspective, food consumption is a complex unconditioned reflex associated with brain activity. It is important to meet the animal's requirement for nutrients that are necessary for it to sustain life, reproduce its kind, grow and develop, and produce a large quantity of high-quality products.

The maintenance of vital functions is carried out through the requirement for energy and nutrients for:

• the operation of the circulatory, respiratory, digestive, and excretory systems;
• muscular activity;
• maintenance of body temperature.

During the growth process, the processes of assimilation prevail over dissimilation in young animals, leading to the growth of body tissues, which requires energy and nutrients from feed. Different species and breeds of animals have different requirements for nutrients for growth and development. Knowledge of the animals' requirements and providing them with the necessary feed are important for the progression of intensive metabolic processes and growth rate.

There is a special requirement for feed nutrients in dams of various animal species for normal fertility, high conception rates, and the viability of the offspring produced. Through feed nutrients, livestock ruminants produce milk, which differs in composition from the body and blood, and is necessary for feeding young animals and humans.

Systems and methods for assessing feed nutritional value

To ensure the general nutrient requirements of livestock animals are met, standardized feeding systems have been developed in Russia, including the following elements:

• standard;
• ration and its structure;
• type and regime of feeding;
• methods for controlling the nutritional adequacy of feeding.

Since 1963, Russia has switched to a system of assessing feed nutritional value and standardizing animal nutrition based on metabolizable energy. From 1975 to 1985, new detailed feeding standards were developed for cattle, pigs, sheep, horses, livestock poultry, rabbits, and nutria. Feeding standards for livestock animals were developed based on 20–30 indicators, and for poultry — based on a larger number of nutrients.

In the 21st century, tasks are being addressed to improve the feeding system for all livestock animals: requirement standards, zootechnical analysis of feed, more detailed study of NFE (sugars and starch), fiber quality (NDF and ADF), protein quality (soluble protein, RDP, and RUP), mineral substances (macro- and microelements), vitamins, and amino acids.

In recent years, the factorial method for calculating the nutrient requirements of livestock animals has been tested, refined, and is currently applied in the USA and European countries. Academician V. G. Ryadchikov, based on the factorial method, has developed nutrient standards in the rations of cows of various live weights, levels of productivity, physiological states, and breeds.

Table 1 presents the nutrient standards for pregnant dry cows and heifers during different stages of pregnancy, developed by V. G. Ryadchikov.

Table 1 – Nutrient standards for dry cows, heifers

4–8.5 months of pregnancy and in the final phase of pregnancy

Indicators 60–30 days 21–0 days 4–8.5 months 21–0 days pre-calving pre-calving of pregnancy pre-calving

1 2 3 4 5 Dry matter, kg/day 14.0 13.6 11.3 10.0 ME, MJ/day 105 145 101.7 105 ME, MJ/kg 7.5 10.5 9.0 10.5 Metabolizable protein, % 6.3 8.3 8.6 9.7 Crude protein, % 10.9 12.5 13.5 15.1 RDP, % 8.7 7.8 9.6 10.2 RUP, % 2.2 4.7 3.9 4.9 NDF, min, % 50–60 33–38 30–33 28–35 ADF, min, % 30–40 18–24 20–21 17–23 NSC, max, % 20–30 35–41 34–38 38–42 Ca, % avail. 0.22 0.46 0.20 0.24 -//- total 0.44 0.68 0.42 0.50 P, % avail. 0.20 0.23 0.15 0.24 -//- total 0.23 0.40 0.23 0.35 Mg, % 0.12 0.38 0.10 0.40

1 2 3 4 5 Cl, % 0.14 0.80 0.10 0.44 K, % 0.51 1.30 0.50 1.50 Na, % 0.10 0.18 0.08 0.13 S, % 0.20 0.30 0.20 0.20 Co, mg/kg 0.11 0.11 0.11 0.11 Cu, mg/kg 12 13 10 16 I, mg/kg 0.4 0.4 0.3 0.4 Fe, mg/kg 13 13 16 26 Mn, mg/kg 17 18 15 22 Se, mg/kg 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 Zn, mg/kg 22 25 20 30 Vitamin A, IU/kg 6000 8000 5000 8000 Vitamin D, IU/kg 1500 2000 1250 2000 Vitamin E, mg/kg 80 130 30 110 (Na+K)-(Cl+S), mg

10 0–(–10) 5–10 –10(+10) eq/100g DM FFC:FC 100:0 70:30 90:10 65:35 Feed humidity, % 50–60 45–50 50–65 45–50

The factorial method was used to determine the requirements of calves aged 0–3 months, and replacement heifers with a live weight from 100 to 350 kg.

Table 2 – Energy and protein requirements of calves when raised on a starter ration without milk and milk replacer Live Average daily DM consumption Protein

ME, MJ Vitamin A, IU weight, kg gain, g consumption, kg PB, g SB, g

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

500 1.27 16.44 179 238 5500

600 1.86 18.24 207 276 5500

500 1.41 18.24 185 246 6600

600 1.56 20.21 213 284 6600

700 1.71 22.22 241 322 6600

800 1.87 24.27 269 359 6600

500 1.54 19.96 191 254 7700

600 1.70 22.00 219 292 7700

700 1.86 24.14 247 330 7700

800 2.03 24.32 275 367 7700

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

500 1.66 21.59 196 262 8800

600 1.83 23.77 225 300 8800

700 2.00 25.98 253 337 8800

800 2.18 28.24 281 375 8800

600 2.09 25.40 231 309 9900

700 2.28 27.70 260 346 9900

800 2.48 30.08 288 385 9900

900 2.68 32.55 317 423 9900

600 2.22 27.00 237 316 11000

700 2.42 29.37 265 354 11000

800 2.63 32.48 294 392 11000

900 2.84 34.39 323 430 11000

Table 3 – Mineral and vitamin standards in feed for calves

30–50 kg live weight and starter compound feed No. 2 for 60–100 kg live weight.

Milk replacer Starter 1 Starter 2 Whole milk

Minerals Ca (%) 1.00 0.70 0.60 0.95 P (%) 0.70 0.45 0.40 0.76 Mg (%) 0.07 0.10 0.10 0.10 Na (%) 0.40 0.15 0.14 0.38 K (%) 0.65 0.65 0.65 1.12 Cl (%) 0.25 0.20 0.20 0.92 S (%) 0.29 0.20 0.20 0.32 Fe (mg/kg) 100 50 50 3.0 Mn (mg/kg) 40 40 40 0.2–0.4 Zn (mg/kg) 40 40 40 15–38 Cu (mg/kg) 10 10 10 0.1–1.1 I (mg/kg) 0.50 0.25 0.25 0.1–0.2 Co (mg/kg) 0.11 0.10 0.10 0.004–0.008 Se (mg/kg) 0.30 0.30 0.30 0.02–0.15

Vitamins: A (IU/kg DM) 9000 4000 4000 11500 D (IU/kg DM) 600 600 600 307 E (IU/kg DM) 50 25 25 8

Table 4 – Nutrient requirements for replacement heifers of medium breeds (Ayrshire, Red Steppe) (based on DM) per head per day and % DM (adult cow weight 550 kg)

ME BW, ADG, DMI, RDP, RUP, CP, Ca, P, kg kg/day kg/day MJ/day % % % % %

0.5 3.1 28.0 9.0 9.3 5.7 15.0 0.68 0.32

0.6 3.1 29.3 9.4 9.6 6.7 16.3 0.81 0.39

0.7 3.1 30.5 9.8 10.0 7.7 17.7 0.90 0.40

0.8 3.1 31.8 10.2 10.4 8.6 19.0 1.0 0.42

0.5 4.1 37.2 9.1 9.2 3.9 13.1 0.55 0.26

0.6 4.2 38.7 9.2 9.4 4.5 13.9 0.63 0.28

0.7 4.2 40.2 9.5 9.7 5.2 14.9 0.70 0.30

0.8 4.2 41.6 9.9 10.0 5.9 15.9 0.75 0.36

0.5 5.1 46.0 9.0 9.1 2.9 12.0 0.46 0.23

0.6 5.2 47.7 9.2 9.3 3.0 12.3 0.52 0.24

0.7 5.2 49.8 9.5 9.5 3.5 13.0 0.57 0.26

0.8 5.2 51.5 9.9 9.8 4.0 13.8 0.64 0.28

0.5 6.1 54.4 8.9 9.2 2.1 11.3 0.41 0.21

0.6 6.1 56.5 9.3 9.4 2.4 11.8 0.46 0.23

0.7 6.2 58.6 9.4 9.6 2.8 12.4 0.50 0.24

0.8 6.3 61.1 9.7 10.0 3.1 13.1 0.55 0.26

0.5 7.0 62.3 8.9 9.1 1.6 10.7 0.38 0.20

0.6 7.0 64.8 9.3 9.5 1.8 11.3 0.42 0.22

0.7 7.1 67.4 9.5 9.7 2.5 12.2 0.46 0.23

0.8 7.1 70.3 9.8 10.0 2.6 12.6 0.48 0.24

0.5 8.0 71.2 8.9 9.0 1.8 10.8 0.35 0.18

0.6 8.1 73.7 9.1 9.3 1.9 11.2 0.39 0.20

0.7 8.2 76.3 9.3 9.5 2.0 11.5 0.42 0.23

0.8 8.3 79.7 9.6 9.8 2.2 12.0 0.46 0.24

Legend: ADG – average daily gain in live weight (kg), DMI – dry matter intake (kg/d), RDP – rumen degradable protein (% DM), RUP – rumen undegradable protein (% DM), CP – crude protein (% DM).

Nutrient requirements, including amino acids, have been developed for growing pigs, sows in the first and second stages of gestation, during lactation, and for boars.

Table 5 – Energy and amino acid requirements for growing pigs (natural feed, 87–90% dry matter) Live weight, kg 1.4–5.5 5.5–13 13–25 25–48 48–74 74–100 100–112 ME, MJ/kg 20.9*** 14.6 13.8 13.6 13.6 13.6 13.4 ME, MJ/day 4.9 8.0 16.3 24.8 32.7 38.4 43.3 Compound feed, kg/day 0.23 0.55 1.18 1.85 2.4 2.86 3.23 Crude protein, % 28 22 20 18 15 13.5 12.5 Crude fiber, % – 2.0 3 4 4 4.5 4.5 0.50 0.50 0.40 0.35 0.35 0.30 0.30

Ideal protein amino acids, % of natural feed* Lysine 1.70 1.31 1.05 0.83 0.71 0.60 0.50 Methionine 0.51 0.42 0.34 0.27 0.23 0.19 0.16 Met. + cyst.** 0.90 0.77 0.62 0.49 0.42 0.35 0.30 Tryptophan 0.31 0.24 0.19 0.15 0.13 0.11 0.09 Threonine 1.02 0.85 0.68 0.54 0.46 0.39 0.33 Isoleucine 1.04 0.75 0.60 0.47 0.40 0.34 0.29 Leucine 1.90 1.31 1.05 0.83 0.71 0.60 0.50 Arginine 1.16 0.52 0.42 0.34 0.28 0.24 0.20 Histidine 0.60 0.41 0.33 0.27 0.22 0.19 0.16 Valine 1.16 0.89 0.71 0.56 0.48 0.41 0.34 Phenylalanine 0.83 0.72 0.58 0.46 0.39 0.33 0.28 Phe. + tyr.** 1.60 1.27 1.02 0.81 0.69 0.58 0.49

Total amino acids, % of natural feed Lysine 2.00 1.54 1.24 0.98 0.83 0.71 0.59 Methionine 0.60 0.49 0.40 0.31 0.27 0.23 0.19 Met. + cyst.** 1.06 0.90 0.73 0.58 0.49 0.42 0.35 Tryptophan 0.36 0.28 0.22 0.18 0.15 0.13 0.11 Threonine 1.20 1.00 0.81 0.64 0.54 0.46 0.38 Isoleucine 1.22 0.88 0.71 0.56 0.47 0.40 0.34 Leucine 2.23 1.54 1.24 1.00 0.83 0.71 0.59 Arginine 1.36 0.61 0.49 0.39 0.33 0.28 0.24 Histidine 0.71 0.48 0.39 0.30 0.26 0.22 0.18 Valine 1.36 1.05 0.84 0.67 0.57 0.48 0.40 Phenylalanine 0.98 0.85 0.68 0.54 0.46 0.39 0.32 Phe. + tyr.** 1.88 1.49 1.20 0.95 0.81 0.69 0.57 Ideal protein, % 28.0 20.6 17.5 14.3 11.6 9.9 8.3

Table 6 – Energy and essential amino acid requirements for sows in the 0–74 days of gestation period (natural feed, 87–90% DM) Live weight at mating, kg 125 150 175 200 200 200 Live weight gain, kg 16 13.5 12 10 9 10 Expected litter size, piglets 10 11 12 12 12 14 ME, MJ/kg 12.55 12.55 12.55 12.55 12.55 12.55 ME, MJ/day 23.0 24.58 26.78 28.23 27.89 28.34 Feed allowance, kg/day 1.83 1.96 2.11 2.25 2.22 2.26 Crude protein, % 13.3 12.4 12.0 11.6 11.3 11.6 Crude fiber, %** 6.0 6.0 6.0 6.0 6.0 6.0 0.40 0.40 0.40 0.40 0.40 0.40

Ideal protein amino acids, % of natural feed Lysine 0.51 0.47 0.46 0.44 0.43 0.44 Methionine 0.16 0.15 0.15 0.14 0.14 0.14 Methionine+cystine*** 0.30 0.28 0.27 0.26 0.25 0.26 Tryptophan 0.09 0.08 0.08 0.08 0.08 0.08 Threonine 0.33 0.31 0.30 0.29 0.28 0.29 Isoleucine 0.29 0.27 0.26 0.25 0.25 0.25 Leucine 0.51 0.47 0.46 0.44 0.43 0.44 Arginine 0.20 0.19 0.18 0.18 0.17 0.18 Histidine 0.16 0.15 0.14 0.14 0.13 0.14 Valine 0.35 0.32 0.31 0.30 0.29 0.30 Phenylalanine 0.28 0.26 0.25 0.24 0.24 0.24 Phenylalanine+tyrosine*** 0.49 0.46 0.45 0.43 0.42 0.43

Total amino acids, % of natural feed Lysine 0.60 0.56 0.54 0.52 0.51 0.52 Methionine 0.19 0.18 0.17 0.17 0.16 0.17 Methionine+cystine*** 0.35 0.33 0.32 0.31 0.30 0.31 Tryptophan 0.11 0.10 0.10 0.09 0.09 0.09 Threonine 0.39 0.36 0.35 0.34 0.33 0.34 Isoleucine 0.34 0.32 0.31 0.30 0.29 0.30 Leucine 0.60 0.56 0.54 0.52 0.51 0.52 Arginine 0.24 0.22 0.22 0.21 0.20 0.21 Histidine 0.19 0.17 0.17 0.16 0.16 0.16 Valine 0.41 0.38 0.37 0.35 0.35 0.35 Phenylalanine 0.33 0.31 0.30 0.29 0.28 0.29 Phenylalanine+tyrosine*** 0.58 0.54 0.52 0.50 0.49 0.50

Table 7 – Energy and amino acid requirements for pregnant sows in the

75–115 days of gestation period (natural feed, 87–90% dry matter) Live weight at 75 days, kg 141 163.5 187 210 209 210 Live weight gain, kg 39 31.5 28 25 21 25 Expected litter size, piglets 10 11 12 12 12 14 ME, MJ/kg 12.55 12.55 12.55 12.55 12.55 12.55 ME, MJ/day 31.94 32.58 33.67 34.45 33.33 34.69 Feed allowance, kg/day 2.55 2.59 2.68 2.74 2.65 2.76 Crude protein, % 16.8 15.0 14.2 13.6 13.3 13.8

** Crude fiber, % 6.0 6.0 6.0 6.0 6.0 6.0 0.40 0.40 0.40 0.40 0.40 0.40

Ideal protein amino acids, % of natural feed Lysine 0.65 0.58 0.55 0.52 0.51 0.52 Methionine 0.21 0.19 0.18 0.17 0.16 0.17 Methionine+cystine*** 0.38 0.34 0.32 0.31 0.30 0.31 Tryptophan 0.12 0.10 0.10 0.09 0.09 0.09 Threonine 0.42 0.38 0.36 0.34 0.33 0.34 Isoleucine 0.37 0.33 0.31 0.30 0.29 0.30 Leucine 0.65 0.58 0.55 0.52 0.51 0.52 Arginine 0.26 0.23 0.22 0.21 0.20 0.21 Histidine 0.20 0.18 0.17 0.16 0.16 0.16 Valine 0.44 0.39 0.37 0.35 0.35 0.35 Phenylalanine 0.36 0.32 0.30 0.29 0.28 0.29 Phenylalanine+tyrosine*** 0.63 0.56 0.53 0.50 0.49 0.50

Total amino acids, % of natural feed Lysine 0.76 0.68 0.64 0.61 0.60 0.62 Methionine 0.24 0.22 0.20 0.20 0.19 0.20

*** Methionine+cystine 0.45 0.40 0.38 0.36 0.35 0.37 Tryptophan 0.14 0.12 0.12 0.11 0.11 0.11 Threonine 0.49 0.44 0.42 0.40 0.39 0.40 Isoleucine 0.43 0.39 0.36 0.35 0.34 0.35 Leucine 0.76 0.68 0.64 0.61 0.60 0.62 Arginine 0.30 0.27 0.26 0.24 0.24 0.25 Histidine 0.24 0.21 0.20 0.19 0.19 0.19 Valine 0.52 0.46 0.44 0.41 0.41 0.42 Phenylalanine 0.42 0.37 0.35 0.34 0.33 0.34 Phenylalanine+tyrosine*** 0.74 0.66 0.62 0.59 0.58 0.60

Table 8 – Energy and amino acid requirements for lactating sows (natural feed 87–90% dry matter) Live weight after farrowing, kg 150 150 150 175 175 175 175 175 Expected LW loss, kg 0 0 0 0 0 0 –10 –10 Number of piglets, head 9 9 9 10 10 10 11 12 Average daily gain of piglets, g 150 200 250 150 200 250 200 200 ME, MJ/kg 12.97 12.97 12.97 12.97 12.97 12.97 12.97 12.97 ME, MJ/day 55.1 66.8 78.5 61.5 74.4 87.4 63.0 76.0 Feed, kg/day 4.25 5.14 6.05 4.73 5.74 6.74 4.86 5.86 Crude protein, % 16.5 17.3 17.8 16.4 17.3 18.0 19.1 19.5