Methodology for formulating and optimizing feeding rations for swine

2.9 2.4 1.9 13 0.1 3.0 1.4 6 157 46 0.04 29

Wet pulp 9.1 0.9 2.3 9.6 3.1 1.8 3 11 642 62 0.14 22 1.5 maize 0.3 2.8 1.1 3.8 0.3 0.4 1.4 0.05 4 0.05 37 11 0.3 17 wheat 0.4 3.9 1.1 3.2 0.1 0.3 1.2 0.04 8 0.05 51 37 0.28 26 barley 0.6 3.5 1.5 4.5 0.5 1.3 1.4 0.09 5 0.08 74 15 0.22 27

Soybean meal 2.8 6 2.2 17.2 0.4 0.4 3.6 17 180 26 0.2 45

4.3 10 5.6 9.5 0.2 0.9 2.7 21 225 37 0.45 60

1.6 8 2.6 9.5 0.4 0.4 2.5 12 105 89 0.75 100

1.5 0.2 2.9 60.6 14.8 6 22 87 66 18

Task 3. Understand the requirements and methodology for formulating diets for swine.

Specifics of diet formulation for swine. Modern pig farming, characterized by high production and economic indicators at high-tech swine complexes and farms, must supply lean pork, achieve 2.2–2.5 farrowings, and raise 22–25 piglets from each sow per year.

Achieving low-cost pork is possible with high conversion (feed costs per 1 kg of gain) – 3–3.5 kg. Given that feed costs account for about 70% of the cost structure of pork, the most important task of the industry is the rational use of compound feed and increasing the growth intensity of livestock animals.

When planning swine feeding, it should be considered that the expenditure of feed energy, protein, including amino acids, is of paramount importance for maintaining vital functions and the formation of meat and fat in growing animals.

For each 1 kg of live weight of growing swine, 523 kJ of ME is expended for maintenance.

MEmain (kJ/day) = 523 × body weight 0.75

For production: depositing 1 g of protein requires 50.2 kJ, 1 g of fat – 56.5 kJ metabolizable energy.

The feed requirement for swine varies depending on the sex of the animal. Gilts consume 1–12% less feed than boars, their live weight gains are 8–9% lower, however, the yield of lean meat is 3% higher, and the loin eye area is 7% larger. In gilts aged with a live weight of 50–120 kg, the concentration of protein and amino acids (especially lysine) should be higher in the diets than in boars.

Additional feed should be planned for growth at temperatures below 18–20 ºC. With a live weight of swine of 25–60 kg, for every 1 ºC below the critical temperature, feed consumption increases by 25 g of compound feed (335 kJ of ME). When the critical temperature rises, feed consumption decreases by 1.7% for every 1 °C.

Swine expend additional feed costs for every 1 km of walking – 7 kJ of ME/kg of live weight.

Energy expenditure increases by 29 kJ/kg of live weight for thermogenesis resulting from standing; 0.75 for every 100 minutes.

From 100 to 146 kJ of energy is expended on consuming 1 kg of feed.

For swine, it is very important to balance diets by amino acids.

Modern pig farming takes into account the true ideal digestibility (TID) of amino acids based on the difference between the amount of amino acids in the feed and the amount excreted in the undigested residues of the contents of the terminal part of the ileum. The latter is determined in operated swine with a T-shaped cannula installed in the terminal part of the ileum at the border with the large intestine.

Table 9 – Content and ratio of essential amino acids in the body, fetus, sow milk, and ideal protein (lysine = 100) g/100 g g/100 g g/100 g g/100 g ... ... ... ... Lysine 7.1 100 6.8 100 7.2 100 7.1 100 Methionine 2.1 30 2.1 31 2.1 29 2.3 32 Methionine + cystine 3.5 49 3.5 52 3.8 53 4.2 59 Tryptophan 1.3 18 1.2 18 1.3 18 1.3 18 Threonine 3.9 55 3.7 54 4.3 60 4.6 65 Isoleucine 3.7 52 3.3 49 4.4 61 4.0 57 Leucine 7.6 107 7.5 110 8.1 112 7.1 100 Arginine 6.7 94 6.7 98 4.9 68 2.8 40 Histidine 2.6 37 2.8 41 2.5 35 2.2 31 Valine 4.8 68 4.9 72 4.9 68 4.8 68 Phenylalanine 3.8 54 4.0 59 3.5 49 3.9 55 Phenylalanine +

6.5 92 7.0 103 6.8 94 6.9 97 tyrosine

To accurately determine the amino acid requirements of swine, an ideal protein is considered, the composition of which corresponds to the animal's needs. Such proteins exist in nature: in sow milk, the swine body, and the fetal body.

When feeding swine, it is customary to consider the amino acid lysine as the limiting factor. The costs of lysine for the renewal of organ and tissue proteins, the replacement of desquamating stomach and intestinal epithelium, keratin formation, and metabolism in the body are taken into account.

When organizing swine feeding, their physiological state should be considered.

Gilts after the first insemination need sufficient feed to ensure good growth of the gilt itself and the development of the offspring during pregnancy. With low live weight, especially after lactation, gilts do not come into heat for insemination for a long time. With excessive live weight – obesity, they eat little, their milk productivity decreases, they lose weight, and are culled.

It is optimal if the gilt gains 25 kg of weight for each pregnancy from the first to the fourth.

During the period from 84 to 112 days of pregnancy, it is advisable to increase the daily allowance of the fed ration by 15–20%.

Studies have shown that by the 45th, 60th, and 75th day of pregnancy, the total gain of internal organs, muscle and adipose tissue of the mother herself and the fetus, placenta, and fetal membranes increases, in g/day, respectively: 88.8; 39.8, and 46.6 g; in the second period of pregnancy (75–112 days) on days 90, 102, and 112 – 225.7; 103.4 and 121.0 g/day.

The data indicate the need for twice-daily feeding of pregnant sows.

After farrowing, sows must consume plenty of water to restore water balance and increase milk productivity. On the first day of lactation, the sow is given 1 kg of compound feed, and then 1 kg is added daily until the 4th day. The daily ration of a lactating sow from the 4th to the 6th day is 4 kg of compound feed, and from the 7th day until weaning, the sow is given 1.5 kg of compound feed plus 0.5 kg for each piglet.

Dry sows (from weaning to mating) are fed special compound feeds.

Rations for boars are formulated taking into account the energy requirements for amino acids, mineral and biologically active substances for the maintenance of vital functions, sexual activity, semen quality, and the growth of the boar itself.

When formulating rations for pigs at different age and physiological stages, great attention is paid to minerals. It is important not only to have their sufficient content in the ration, but also their ratio Ca: P = 1:1.25 (total) or 2:1 for available phosphorus.

Mineral nutrition and symptoms of nutrient imbalance

Mineral deficiency and excess in pig rations

Symptoms of calcium (Ca) and phosphorus (P) deficiency: growth depression, poor bone mineralization leading to rickets in young animals and osteomalacia in adults, paralysis of the hind limbs, more frequent in sows at the end of lactation. Excess Ca and P reduces the growth of piglets. An excess of Ca reduces the utilization of phosphorus and increases the requirement for Zn and vitamin K.

Salt deficiency reduces the growth of piglets, while an excess can cause toxicosis, nervousness, weakness, epilepsy, paralysis, and death.

Mg deficiency can cause weakness of the pastern joints, an unsteady gait, reluctance to stand, convulsions, and death.

K deficiency causes anorexia, emaciation, coarse bristles, passivity, ataxia, and a decrease in heart rate.

Excess P in piglets causes growth retardation, rickets, gastroenteritis; in adults, it is excreted through the kidneys.

Co deficiency reduces the number of red blood cells in the blood, slows down growth, and manifests as hair loss. Excess Co causes feed refusal, "stiffness" of the limbs, formation of a "hump", convulsions, and anemia.

Feeding 100–250 mg/kg of CuSO4 in the feed increases the growth of piglets; it is more effective when fat is added simultaneously.

With a Cu deficiency, the skeleton weakens, joints become immobile, and digestive disorders occur. Excess Cu in the ration is toxic – hemoglobin in the blood decreases, and the accumulation of Cu in the liver causes jaundice.

J2 deficiency in sows causes the birth of weak or stillborn piglets with an absence of hair cover.

Fe deficiency in sow milk (1mg/1l) requires additional injections of preparations for piglets to prevent anemia.

A deficiency of Mn disrupts skeletal growth, increases fat deposition, disrupts or eliminates estrous cycles, leads to fetal resorption, the birth of small and weak piglets, and reduced milk yield. In young animals, it causes weakness in the limbs and poor hair cover.

Symptoms of Se (selenium) deficiency in pig rations include liver necrosis, sudden death, edema of the intestinal mucosa, muscle dystrophy (white muscle disease), impaired reproduction and milk secretion, and weakening of the immune system.

Zinc deficiency causes a decrease in litter size, teeth grinding, vomiting, diarrhea, growth retardation, lameness, and animal death. An excess of Zn in the ration causes depression, high blood pressure, gastritis, and death in animals.

Standardization of vitamin requirements for pigs

When standardizing pig feeding, it is important to meet their vitamin requirements. Fat-soluble vitamins:

• A (retinol)
• D
• E (tocopherol)
• K

Pigs are able to store vitamins A and D in the liver. However, a deficiency of vit. A leads to loss of orientation in dim light ("night blindness"), dryness of the eye membranes, dull, coarse, rough, scaly skin on the neck, withers, back, tail root, inflammation of the nasal mucosa (rhinitis), bronchi (bronchitis), lungs (pneumonia), and inflammation of the mucous membranes of the gastrointestinal tract and bile ducts. An excess of vit. A leads to cartilaginous and intermembranous bone lesions.

A deficiency of vit. D disrupts Ca absorption, leading to rickets in piglets and osteomalacia in adult pigs. An excess of vit. D2 and D3 in piglets reduces growth, liver mass, and shortens the radius and ulna.

Consequences of fat-soluble vitamin deficiency

A deficiency of vitamin E leads to degeneration of skeletal and cardiac muscles, vascular damage, anemia, liver necrosis, sudden death, and mastitis-metritis diseases in sows.

Consequences of vitamin deficiency in pigs

A deficiency of vitamin K disrupts blood clotting, causes hemorrhage of internal organs, and leads to death.

Water-soluble vitamins include the following components:

• B1 (thiamine);
• B2 (riboflavin);
• B3 (pantothenic acid);
• B4 (choline);
• B5 (niacin);
• B6 (pyridoxine);
• B7 (biotin);
• B9 (folic acid);
• B12 (cyanocobalamin);
• Bc (folacin);
• C (ascorbic acid);
• PP (nicotinic acid);
• H (biotin).

With a deficiency of vitamin B1 in piglets, weight gain decreases, cardiac hypertrophy is observed, and sudden heart failure and death occur. Vitamin B2 deficiency reduces the reproductive qualities of pigs and growth rate, and causes cataracts, an awkward gait, seborrhea, vomiting, and hair loss.

Vitamin B3 deficiency leads to edema and necrosis of the intestinal mucosa, degeneration of nerves and spinal cord ganglia, and death. A deficiency of vitamin B4 slows down growth, reduces the number of red blood cells, causes the bristles to coarsen, and blocks the renal tubules.

A lack of vitamins B5 and PP leads to anorexia, vomiting, dry skin, dermatitis, hair loss, gastrointestinal ulcers, and the development of pellagra. A deficiency in vitamin B6 causes disturbances in protein metabolism and the synthesis of hormones and mineral substances in the body.

A deficiency of vitamins B7 and H leads to hair loss, ulcers, dermatitis, swelling around the eyes, inflammation of the oral cavity, and cracks and bleeding in the lower part of the hooves. A lack of vitamins B6 and B9 in the diet negatively affects the growth of piglets and hair luster, and causes anemia, bone marrow hyperplasia, premature birth of fetuses, and deformities in newborns.

When there is a deficiency of vitamin B12 in sows, abortions and agalactia occur, piglets grow slowly, and movement disorders, vomiting, diarrhea, kidney damage, and pernicious anemia occur. Pigs can synthesize vitamin C from glucose. Vitamin C improves the digestibility of Ca and Fe, removes toxic Cu and R from the body, and increases the stability of vitamins A, B1, B2, B3, Bc, and E.

Requirements for mineral substances

When formulating rations, the requirements of young animals of various ages, sows, and breeding boars for mineral substances and vitamins are taken into account.

Table 10 – Requirements of growing pigs for mineral substances and vitamins, in % and per 1 kg of natural feed (87–90% dry matter)

Vitamins: A, IU 5000 4500 4000 3000 3000 2000 2000 D3, IU 800 700 600 500 500 400 300 E, IU 20 16 16 12 12 11 11 K, mg 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 B7, mg 0.1 0.08 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 B4, g 0.60 0.60 0.50 0.40 0.30 0.30 0.30 Bc, mg 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 B5 available, mg 25 20 15 12.5 10 7 7 B3, mg 15 12 10 9 8 7 7 B2, mg 4.5 4 3.5 3 2.5 2 2 B1, mg 1.7 1.5 1 1 1 1 1 B6, mg 2 2 1.5 1.5 1 1 1 B12, mcg 20 20 18 15 10 10 5 Linoleic

0.12 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 acid, %

Table 11 – Requirements of pregnant, lactating sows and breeding boars for mineral substances and vitamins, in % or per 1 kg of natural feed (87–90% dry matter)

Calcium, % 0.75 0.75 0.75 Phosphorus (total), % 0.60 0.60 0.60 Phosphorus (available), % 0.35 0.35 0.35 Sodium, % 0.15 0.20 0.15 Chlorine, % 0.12 0.16 0.12 Magnesium, % 0.04 0.04 0.04 Potassium, % 0.2 0.2 0.2 Copper, mg 5 5 5 Iodine, mg 0.14 0.14 0.14 Iron, mg 80 80 80 Manganese, mg 20 20 20 Selenium, mg 0.15 0.15 0.15 Zinc, mg 50 50 50

A, IU 4000 2000 4000 D3, IU 200 200 200 E, IU 44 44 44 K, mg 0.5 0.5 0.5 B7, mg 0.2 0.2 0.2 B4, g 1.25 1.30 1.25 Bc, mg 1.3 1.3 1.3 B5 available, mg 10 10 10 B3, mg 12 12 12 B2, mg 3.75 3.75 3.75 B1, mg 1 1 1 B6, mg 1 1 1 B12, mcg 15 15 15 Linoleic acid, % 0.1 0.1 0.1

Task 4. Comprehend the requirements and specifics of ration formulation for poultry.

Methodology for ration formulation for feeding poultry. When formulating rations for poultry, the bird's energy requirements for maintenance, production in the form of eggs, protein, and fat, as well as for live weight gain and maintaining body temperature depending on the ambient temperature, are taken into account. Of particular importance in balancing rations for poultry is the optimal ratio of essential and non-essential amino acids in protein. The protein of a chicken egg and a chick's body is complete and is considered ideal.

Table 12 – Amino acid composition of egg protein, chick body g/100 g amino acids, g/100 g amino acids, g/100 g amino acids, protein lysine = protein lysine = protein lysine =

Lysine 7.1 100 7.52 100 7.3 100 Histidine 2.4 33.8 2.72 36.2 2.6 35.0 Arginine 7.1 100 6.5 86.4 6.8 93.0 Threonine 5.1 71.8 4.6 61.2 4.8 66.0 Methionine 2.6 36.6 2.5 33.2 2.6 36.0 Cystine 1.7 23.9 1.2 16.0 2.6 36.0 Methionine +

4.3 60.6 3.7 49.2 5.0 72.0 Cystine Tryptophan 1.5 21.1 1.4 18.6 1.5 20.0 Valine 5.8 81.7 5.5 73.1 5.6 77.0 Isoleucine 5.6 78.9 5.6 74.5 5.6 77.0 Leucine 8.5 119.9 8.7 115.7 8.5 117.0 Phenylalanine 4.3 60.6 4.2 55.9 4.2 58.0 Tyrosine 4.3 60.6 3.4 45.2 3.9 53.0 Phenylalanine +

8.6 121.1 7.6 101.6 8.1 111.0 Tyrosine Glycine 3.2 45.1 6.8 90.4 3.4 46.5 Alanine 5.3 74.6 5.0 66.5 5.4 74.0 Glycine +Alanine 8.5 119.7 11.8 156.9 8.8 120.5

Poultry nutrition standards have been developed.

Table 13 – Recommended nutritional standards during the period of growing young poultry and pullets in the pre-laying and pre-peak periods

Indicator 0–6 6–8 8–16

16–18 weeks 5% 18 weeks to

Nutrients: Protein 20 18 16 15.5 17.5 Metabolizable energy, 2915– 2915– 2860–

2915–2970 2915–2970 Kcal/kg 3025 3025 3025 Linoleic

1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.5 acid

Amino acids (min) Arginine, % 1.20 1.10 1.00 0.88 1.10 Lysine, % 1.10 0.90 0.75 0.75 0.88 Methionine, % 0.48 0.44 0.39 0.36 0.48 Methionine+

0.80 0.73 0.65 0.60 0.82 Cystine, % Tryptophan, % 0.20 0.18 0.16 0.15 0.17 Threonine, % 0.75 0.70 0.60 0.55 0.68

Mineral substances (min) Calcium, % 1.00 1.00 1.00 2.75(3) 4.00(4) Phosphorus, incl.: total 0.78± 0.75± 0.72± 0.78± 0.78± available 0.50 0.48 0.46 0.50 0.50 Sodium, % 0.19 0.18 0.17 0.18 0.18 Chlorides, % 0.15 0.15 0.15 0.16 0.17 Potassium, % 0.50 0.50 0.50 0.50 0.50

Daily requirements of poultry during the egg-laying period have been proposed.

Table 14 – Nutritional standards during the egg-laying period of laying hens per 1 head per day

1 2 3 4 5 Protein, g 16.5–17.00 16.00–16.50 15.50–15.75 15.00–15.25 Methionine, mg 400 376 352 327 Methionine + Cystine, mg 660 620 580 540 Lysine, mg 900 860 820 785 Tryptophan, mg 175 170 165 160

1 2 3 4 5 Calcium, g 4.10 4.25 4.40 4.55 Phosphorus (total), g 0.78 0.70 0.63 0.55 Phosphorus (available), g 0.50 0.45 0.40 0.35 Sodium, mg 180 180 180 180 Chloride, mg 160 160 160 160

When raising broilers – chicks, nutrition is regulated in three phases: start 0–14 days, growth 15–28 days, and finish – from day 29 until slaughter.