Classification of injuries in livestock animals and first aid rules

Classification of injuries and first aid for contusions

An injury is defined as a disruption in the functioning of tissues, organs, or the entire organism of a livestock animal under the influence of external or internal factors. Based on their origin, damaging factors are divided into mechanical (impacts, falls, cuts), physical (thermal burns, frostbite, electricity), and chemical (acids, alkalis, heavy metal salts). In addition to external lesions, internal injuries are common in livestock: nutritional — caused by foreign objects in the feed, and biological — arising from parasitic diseases, for example, ascariasis.

A contusion is a closed mechanical injury to tissues without compromising the integrity of the skin. It occurs due to impacts from blunt objects, hooves, or when livestock animals fall on a slippery floor. Due to vascular rupture, blood and lymph leak into the subcutaneous tissue and intermuscular space, creating an edematous, firm, or fluctuating swelling. On non-pigmented areas of the skin, bruising is clearly visible, and the animal itself experiences pain and loses the function of the injured organ.

1. In the first two days, apply local cooling (ice, snow, cold compresses) to stop the hemorrhage and apply a pressure bandage.
2. Perform cold treatments for 30–40 minutes with intervals of 2 to 6 hours.
3. Starting from the 2nd–3rd day, switch to heat treatments, rubbing in ointments, and massage to promote the resolution of the swelling.

Types of wounds, types of bleeding, and the mechanics of healing

A wound differs from a contusion by the mandatory disruption of the integrity of external coverings — skin, mucous, or serous membranes. One should distinguish between wounds, abrasions (focal lesions of the epidermis), and scratches (linear damage to the epidermis). Based on the nature of the damage, wounds are classified as incised, puncture, chopped, lacerated, bite, crushed, gunshot, and combined. According to the depth of penetration, they are classified as blind, through, and penetrating into anatomical cavities.

The degree of wound gaping depends on the direction of the injury and the type of tissue: with transverse damage to muscles and tendons, the edges separate more than with longitudinal damage. Special attention is paid to the nature of the bleeding. In arterial bleeding, bright red blood spurts in a pulsating stream; in venous bleeding, there is a continuous dark red flow; and in capillary bleeding, blood oozes from the entire surface and usually stops spontaneously.

The healing process of a wound channel goes through three consecutive phases. In the first phase, acute inflammation, acidosis, exudation, and colloid swelling (hydration) develop. In the second phase, the edema subsides, the discharge of exudate ceases (dehydration), and the surface is covered with granulations. In the third phase, the granulation tissue transforms into scar tissue, followed by its epithelialization.

• Duration of a cold treatment — 30–40 min
• Interval between cold treatments — 2–6 h
• Start of heat treatments — from the 2nd–3rd day
• Formation of a vascular network in the wound — 4–5 days
• Time for suture removal — 7th–10th day

During healing by primary intention, in the first hours, a thin fibrinous adhesion forms between the wound walls, into which leukocytes, lymphocytes, fibroblasts, and macrophages migrate, triggering proteolysis and phagocytosis. On the 4th–5th day, a continuous network of capillaries forms between the walls. By the 7th–10th day, it turns into strong fibrous connective tissue, after which the sutures are removed, leaving a barely noticeable pink scar.

Mechanics of healing and primary wound care

Healing by secondary intention occurs in gaping wounds with uneven edges, pockets, tracks, suppuration, and large volumes of necrotic tissue. With a favorable course of the process, capillary vascular loops form on the cleaned areas of the wound as early as the 3rd–4th day. Together with leukocytes, macrophages, and fibroblasts, they form granulation tissue, which fills the injury from the bottom and walls towards the edges. Over time, the granulations transform into scar tissue, which pulls the wound together, after which epithelialization begins. The full healing cycle takes from 3–4 weeks or more, and the resulting scar does not contain hair follicles, sebaceous glands, or sweat glands.

In cattle and swine, wound healing often occurs under a scab. By the 2nd–3rd day, the wound is filled with fibrin, which dries along with blood cells and dead tissue, forming a protective biological bandage. The process under a scab can proceed without suppuration or with partial or complete suppuration via secondary intention. In horses, only superficial abrasions, scratches, and shallow wounds with a serous type of inflammation can heal under a scab.

To prevent infection and the development of complications, initial treatment of the injury is performed immediately after bleeding has stopped.

1. Use tweezers to remove foreign objects and visible contaminants from the wound surface.
2. Irrigate the wound cavity with a 3% hydrogen peroxide solution or physiological saline with the addition of potassium permanganate, antibiotics, or other antiseptics.
3. Clip or shave the hair around the injured area.
4. Treat the skin around the edges of the wound with iodine tincture, a 2% chloramine solution, or 5% ammonia solution.
5. Cover the treated wound with a sterile gauze pad.

Methods for stopping bleeding, dressings, and first aid for burns

• Tampon exposure time — 24–48 h
• Tourniquet in warm weather — up to 2 h
• Tourniquet in cold weather — up to 1 h
• Pressure bandage on soft tissues — up to 2 h
• Changing the dressing with hypertonic solution — after 4–5 days

To stop bleeding from deep wounds and small vessels, tamponade is used. A gauze tampon soaked in 0.1% adrenaline, 3% hydrogen peroxide solution, or turpentine is inserted into the wound using a dressing forceps or tweezers and left for 24–48 hours. The tampon should be removed carefully, preferably by pulling a pre-threaded string. Bleeding on the head and limbs is stopped with a pressure bandage after preliminary tamponade. A tight bandage on soft tissues is kept for no more than two hours, whereas on a hoof it can be left for several days.

A rubber tube, belt, or soft rope is used as a tourniquet. Cold is used to stop nosebleeds. Pharmacological agents used to increase blood clotting and constrict vessels include 1% calcium chloride solution intravenously or 1:1000 adrenaline subcutaneously. Fixation of the dressing material and protection of the wound are provided by special bandages.

• Protective bandage: two layers of sterile gauze (extending 2–3 cm beyond the wound edges), a layer of absorbent cotton wool, and a fixing bandage. In the absence of complications, it is kept on for 6–7 days.
• Pressure bandage: a gauze pad, a layer of cotton wool, and tight bandaging. Used for closed injuries and bleeding wounds; changed every 2–3 hours.
• Bandage for infected wounds: the first layer of sterile gauze moistened with a 10–20% magnesium sulfate or sodium sulfate solution; the second layer of white absorbent cotton wool. The dressing is changed 4–5 days after treatment.

Thermal, radiation, and electrical tissue injuries lead to burns, which animals sustain during fires, scalding with boiling water or steam, severe ultraviolet radiation, and electric shocks. Depending on the depth of the damage, burns are divided into I, II, and III degrees. In the I (mild) degree, only the superficial layer of the skin is affected, which clinicians record by local redness and slight swelling of the skin.

First aid for burns, electrical injuries, and frostbite

Severe thermal and chemical injuries require immediate action on the spot. Second-degree burns are accompanied by the formation of blisters with clear or yellowish contents and an inflammatory rim. Upon their rupture, a wound surface is formed with a high risk of bacterial contamination. In third-degree burns, deep damage to the skin and tissue necrosis with the formation of an eschar occur.

• Potassium permanganate for treatment — 5% solution
• Soda solution for acid burns — 40 g per 1 l of water
• Ratio of vinegar to water for alkali burns — 1:1
• Iodine-glycerin for treating frostbite — 1 part iodine to 4 parts glycerin
• Alcohol solution of brilliant green — 0.5%

Treatment of skin burns is carried out according to a clear scheme:

1. Immediately after the injury, flood the area abundantly with cold, clean water.
2. Gently clean the area with a cotton or gauze swab and moisten it with a 5% potassium permanganate solution (5–6 times, repeating three times at 1–2 hour intervals; once daily on the second and subsequent days).
3. If a wound surface forms, apply xeroform ointment or Vishnevsky liniment.

In the event of an electrical injury, the primary task is to de-energize the object: turn off the main switch, cut the wire with insulated tools, or knock it away with a dry wooden stick or rope. Working is permitted only with rubber gloves, standing on a dry board or rubber mat. You must not touch an animal under electrical current with your bare hands. After being freed, the animal should be provided with rest and allowed to inhale ammonia.

Frostbite most often affects peripheral areas: ears, tail, teats in cows, the scrotum in males, and combs and wattles in poultry. Risk factors include low temperature, high humidity, wind, and contact with metal. There are three degrees of frostbite:

• I degree: skin pallor (anemia), reduced or lost sensitivity.
• II degree: swelling, purple-blue skin color, blisters with serosanguinous fluid.
• III degree: tissue necrosis and systemic intoxication.

For I degree frostbite, the livestock animal is moved to a warm place, the affected area is rubbed with camphor spirit, treated with camphor oil or iodine-glycerin, and a cotton-gauze bandage is applied. III degree frostbite requires urgent veterinary assistance: tissue dissection, removal of necrotic tissue, administration of novocaine blocks, intravenous infusion of glucose and alcohol solutions, and blood transfusion.

Diagnosis of limb diseases and causes of lameness

Lameness is an alteration of gait caused by damage to bones, joints, tendons, ligaments, or nerve trunks. Disorders arise due to injuries (bruises, falls, wounds, overloading), thermal or chemical factors, and against the background of metabolic disorders (changes in the phosphorus-calcium balance lead to fractures). Infections (foot-and-mouth disease, necrobacillosis) and poor management practices, such as dampness, dirt, lack of exercise, and untimely hoof trimming, also lead to lameness.

To accurately determine the localization of the pathology, an examination is carried out in a strictly defined order:

1. Assess the limb stance and the posture of the livestock animal at rest, then observe the gait pattern in motion.
2. Examine the hoof: check its shape, the degree of horn overgrowth, the presence of wall cracks, and damage to the sole, frog, and coronary band.
3. Compare the local temperature (by applying the back of your hand) and pain sensitivity of the affected and healthy limbs.
4. Sequentially palpate all parts of the limb from bottom to top to identify hidden swellings and painful areas.
5. Check the joints by passive flexion and extension.

Sole puncture is a stab or puncture-laceration wound of the hoof sole caused by sharp objects (nails, wire, glass). Punctures of the sole often occur when livestock animals are kept in cluttered, uncleaned premises, while grazing near dumps or highways where there may be pieces of metal brushes from cleaning machines, and when driven near construction sites, etc.

Lameness occurs immediately after the injury or 1-3 days later. During a thorough cleaning of the sole, a foreign object or a wound canal is sometimes found, which may be very small, resembling a dark spot.

For treatment, the sole is cleaned, and the wound is lubricated with 5% alcoholic iodine tincture. If a foreign object is found, it is removed. The wound is filled with a gauze swab heavily soaked in one of the disinfectants (tar, ichthyol, or dusted with iodoform, etc.). After this, a bandage is applied; several turns of the bandage are made on the coronary band, leaving the initial end of the bandage 20-25 cm long free at the back (heel) part of the coronary band. Then the bandage is passed over the hoof wall to the sole (forward — down — backward) and looped around the free initial end at the level of the bulbs. An assistant keeps this end taut at all times. Bandaging continues in this order until the hoof capsule and coronary band are completely covered. Afterward, the free ends of the bandage are tied together at the back. It is advisable to put a canvas cover over the bandage to prevent contamination. The dressing is changed every 2-3 days.

For any examination of the lower part of the limb and the hoof, it is advisable to first perform a foot bath (in a bucket, preferably canvas, with a weak solution of potassium permanganate). Only after thorough washing can the damaged limb be examined in detail.

Sole bruising (contusion) occurs as a result of improper trimming (excessive cutting of the sole horn), moving on uneven, especially rocky, soil, or keeping animals without sufficient bedding.

Livestock animals exhibit lameness and pain when stepping. During hoof trimming, areas of yellow, yellow-red, or violet-red color of various shapes and sizes are found on the sole. During palpation and tapping of the sole, the livestock animal shows a painful reaction.

For treatment, cold is applied initially—smearing with cold clay, preferably mixed with vinegar, or using ice in a canvas bag. All procedures are performed after properly securing the livestock animal and cleaning the hoof. When the acute process subsides (after a few days), a tar bandage is applied. It is very important to keep livestock animals on abundant bedding, as this contributes to a faster regeneration process and healing.

Joint dislocation is the displacement of the articular surfaces of bones. In livestock animals, cases of fetlock joint dislocation are not uncommon. In acute dislocation, the configuration of the joint changes, followed by painful swelling; mobility and limb function are impaired (the animal cannot bear weight on it).

As a rule, the joint can be set shortly after the dislocation, applying a certain amount of force while considering anatomical and topographical features. The moment of reduction is accompanied by a slight click. It is advisable to use local anesthesia during reduction. The final stage is the application of a splint-plaster bandage, which is removed after 2-3 weeks.

Bone fractures may result from bruising, falls, blows from other animals, or unsuccessful casting. Fractures are distinguished into complete and incomplete (with the formation of a crack), as well as closed and open (with damage to the integrity of the skin).

In a complete fracture, severe lameness and swelling are observed, and crepitation (grating of fragments) and bone mobility at the injury site can be felt. To confirm the diagnosis (especially in cases of incomplete fractures), an X-ray examination is necessary.

First aid consists of providing rest to the animal. The fracture site is secured with a bandage using improvised means (boards, sticks, etc.); cotton wool or soft rags are placed under the bandage. Subsequently, a plaster bandage is applied. A commission (veterinary specialists and zootechnicians) determines the feasibility of further treatment.

In livestock practice, there are frequent cases of horn sheath avulsion, and sometimes fractures of the horn process. This is accompanied by bleeding, which can be quite intense, and severe pain in the affected area. In cases of horn process fractures, mobility of the horn is noted.

If the horn sheath is loosely attached to the mobile tissues, it is removed. Afterward, the exposed horn process is washed with a solution of potassium permanganate (1:1000), a 3% hydrogen peroxide solution, a furacilin solution (1:5000), or other similar agents. The horn is dried with a cotton-gauze swab, necrotic tissue areas are removed, and the wound edges are treated with iodine tincture, white streptocide (or iodoform, especially in summer), and bandaged. The bandage is applied in a figure-eight pattern, crossing the bandage over to the healthy horn. It is recommended to moisten the bandage with wood tar after application. It is changed after 5-7 days.

In the case of a horn fracture, the hanging part is separated with a scalpel or scissors, the wound is covered with gauze, and the hair around it is carefully trimmed (preventing it from getting into the wound). The gauze is removed, the wound is washed with a disinfectant solution, dried, treated with iodine tincture, and dusted with a sulfonamide powder or iodoform. Sterile gauze swabs soaked in streptocide emulsion are inserted into the wound cavity and secured with a bandage, which is changed periodically. Complete healing occurs in approximately 3-4 weeks.

Horn injuries and eye lesions: first aid and treatment

Horn sheath avulsion occurs during sudden backward head movements when the animal gets its horns stuck in a fence, grate, or wire, as well as due to incorrect fixation by the horns. The injury is accompanied by severe bleeding and agitation of the animal; however, with timely intervention, the prognosis is favorable.

• Iodoform ointment concentration — 5–10%
• Boric acid solution for eye irrigation — 3%
• Albucid solution for eye irrigation — 10%

To treat the damaged horn, white streptocide or iodoform powder is used, followed by coating with wood tar and applying a tight bandage. Under the protection of the wood tar, a new horn sheath forms relatively quickly. It will be smaller in size, without its natural luster and with an undulating surface, but it will fully restore its protective function.

Eyelid wounds most often occur during grazing in shrubs or forests. The affected area is carefully coated with 5–10% iodoform ointment, after which it is dusted with white streptocide powder or trycillin. For extensive wounds, adhesive plaster or a glue bandage is applied.

Conjunctivitis is an inflammation of the mucous membrane of the eyes, accompanied by redness, lacrimation, and purulent discharge. The disease is caused by foreign objects (dust, feed particles), chemical and physical irritants, carotene deficiency in the diet, or infectious-parasitic processes (for example, thelaziasis).

1. Remove the foreign object from the eye with a cotton swab moistened with clean boiled or distilled water.
2. Irrigate the eye with a disinfectant solution (3% boric acid or 10% albucid) using a pipette, syringe bulb, or a syringe without a needle.

Skin lesions: prevention and therapy of eczema and dermatitis

Eczema is an inflammation of the superficial layers of the skin caused by hypersensitivity to non-specific allergens. The development of the disease is facilitated by external factors: scratching, friction from dirty saddle pads in horses, insect bites, dampness, high air temperature, keeping on a damp floor without bedding, exposure to turpentine or lysol, and the penetration of microorganisms and mold. Internal causes include pathologies of the nervous system, metabolic disorders, and internal organ diseases.

In its development, eczema goes through sequential stages:

• reddening (erythema);
• formation of dense nodules (papules);
• formation of vesicles with light yellow liquid (vesicles);
• appearance of pustules (pustules);
• development of weeping erosions after the rupture of pustules;
• crust formation as the exudate dries;
• peeling of the epidermis.

A characteristic feature of eczema is prolonged and persistent itching. During the treatment period, it is important not to wet the skin with water. Animals are prescribed sedatives, multivitamins, ointments, and pastes: naftalan, ASD-F-3, corticosteroids, and Vishnevsky liniment. UHF physiotherapy is beneficial. The diet should be restricted in common salt and easily digestible carbohydrates.

Dermatitis is an inflammation of the deep layers of the skin. In terms of its causes, it is similar to eczema and is subdivided into traumatic, chemical, verrucous, toxic, and gangrenous. Traumatic dermatitis manifests as redness, edema, pain, hair loss, and crusts. Acute chemical dermatitis is characterized by a hot, dense, or doughy painful swelling.

Verrucous dermatitis is found in horses on the flexion surfaces of the digital joints of the hind legs, extending to the metatarsus. The skin thickens, loses mobility, secretes a grayish-white purulent exudate, and growths in the form of warts are formed.

Gangrenous dermatitis is seasonal and most often occurs in spring and autumn. Pathogens (anaerobes or the causative agent of necrobacillosis) penetrate through wounds, abrasions, scratches, and macerated skin. The local purulent-necrotic process on the limbs is always accompanied by an increase in general body temperature.

Therapy for various forms of dermatitis and planned prevention

The tactics for treating dermatitis directly depend on the cause that triggered the skin lesion. In the case of a traumatic injury, the primary task is to disinfect the damaged tissues and suppress the inflammatory process. To do this, a strict sequence for treating abrasions and scratches is followed.

1. Treat abrasions and scratches with iodine tincture.
2. Apply ointments, pastes, or corticosteroid preparations (hydrocortisone, prednisolone).
3. Dust the affected surface with antiseptic powder (for example, white streptocide).

In cases of chemical dermatitis, in fresh instances, the aggressive substance is initially neutralized with a weak solution of acid or alkali, depending on the nature of the chemical. Subsequently, therapy is carried out according to the same regimen as for traumatic injury. Toxic dermatitis is treated similarly to acute eczema: the affected skin is lubricated with tar liniment and a bandage is applied.

Treatment of verrucous dermatitis requires surgical and systemic intervention. In this case, cauterization with acid or a thermal cautery is used, after which the area is dusted with dry potassium permanganate. Systemic therapy includes intravenous administration of a 10% calcium chloride solution.

Prevention of skin pathologies is based on eliminating the causes of their occurrence. This is comprehensive work that is carried out on farms on a planned basis. To prevent dermatitis, zoohygienic measures are systematically performed and the conditions of animal husbandry are controlled.